Michael L. Wayman (Dept. of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum
Engineering and Dept. of
Anthropology)
Nancy C. Lovell (Dept.of Anthropology)
The University of Alberta is a large state-supported institution with a student enrollment of about 30,000 located in Edmonton, the capital of the Province of Alberta. There is no Department of Archaeology at the University, rather the archaeologists, geoarchaeologists and physical anthropologists are housed primarily within the Department of Anthropology and the Department of Classics (which has recently been merged with the Department of History). The need for the teaching of Archaeometry was perceived and informally discussed prior to 1986, but in that year action was catalyzed by the extended visit of Dr. Ursula Franklin under the University's Distinguished Visitor program. During this visit, an open meeting was attended by about 20 University faculty members, both archaeologists and physical scientists with an interest in the application of their disciplines to archaeological problems. Also present were interested representatives of the Archaeological Survey of Alberta and the Provincial Museum of Alberta. Some of the scientists had previously been involved in collaborative research with archaeologists, however this meeting was the first formal recognition of common ground.
The result of the 1986 meeting was an agreement to offer a one-term (36 hour) undergraduate course in Archaeometry under the course label "Special Topics in Anthropology", the course to be instructed jointly by a materials scientist and an archaeologist. The course was offered three times with this format, by M.L. Wayman and C.G. Hickey in 1987 and 1991 and by Wayman and D. Lubell in 1989. A proposal was then submitted and approved by the University to offer archaeometry formally (rather than as a "special topics" course) in a two-course format, namely a one-term lecture course ("Archaeometry") and a follow-up one term hands-on project course ("Applications of Archaeometry") which has the first as a prerequisite. This two-course sequence was offered in the Fall and Winter terms of 1992/3 and again in the 1994/5 academic year. These courses have throughout been listings of the Department of Anthropology and are offered in alternate years, meshing in "off" years with a course in geoarchaeology. The two-course sequences are offered by Wayman alone without the formal co-responsibility of an archaeologist; the consequences of this are significant and will be discussed below.
Enrollment at present is restricted to 25 students for the first course and 10 for the second. The students are predominantly senior undergraduate Anthropology students, with a healthy representation from other arts specializations. About 15% are graduate students or students taking a qualifying year while applying for admission to graduate school. There have also been a smattering of archaeologically-oriented students from science disciplines, notably Geography and Geology. Approximately equal numbers of male and female students register. This course is not listed or intended to meet science requirements for Arts students or vice-versa and only people with a genuine interest in the field have been enrolled.
The courses are based on the idea that scientific analytical techniques can be used to "read" the material record of the past. As summarized by Ursula Franklin, the material record can be read as can a textual record, and what is required is to learn the language in which it is written. This language is basically Materials Science, with an emphasis on materials characterization and analysis, so the fact that the major contributor to the courses (Wayman) is by training a materials scientist is appropriate. The first course therefore is aimed at familiarizing the students with a selection of archaeometric methodologies and equipment, making extensive use of the case study approach. In the second course the student is able to directly apply some of these in a hands-on project.
The first of the two courses, the lecture course, begins with three hours of lectures which provide an introduction to the course and its philosophy as well as a few selected case studies from the literature and from the primary instructor's personal experience to illustrate the power and potential of the discipline. Since the primary instructor is a materials scientist, it has proven highly valuable to have a guest lecture here by an archaeologist dealing with his or her philosophy of archaeology and the role of archaeological science within archaeology. At this early stage, students are given a library assignment which requires them to page through several volumes of archaeometric journals (Archaeometry, Journal of Archaeological Science, Archaeomaterials, MASCA Journal) making a survey of the analytical techniques reported in the papers included in each volume. A list of categories and analytical techniques is provided, covering the analysis of chemical composition, structural analysis, stable isotope analysis, dating, analysis of production technologies, and archaeological prospection. As a second part of the assignment, students are asked to scan through assigned volumes of more conventional archaeological journals (e.g. American Antiquity, Journal of Field Archaeology, Antiquity, American Journal of Archaeology, Oxford Journal of Archaeology, etc.) determining the extent to which the articles in these volumes make appreciable use of archaeometric techniques in general (i.e. not specific techniques). The aim of this assignment is two-fold; firstly it assures that the students are exposed to the archaeometric terminology and literature by forcing them to scan through a significant number of journal articles on a paragraph-by-paragraph basis. Secondly, they are stimulated to give thought to topics which are appealing to them for the major research paper which each of them will be writing later in the course. With this in mind, they are asked to list 3 to 5 such topics in which they are interested, and this is the basis for individual discussions which finalize the topics of their research papers.
Following this initial sequence comes a group of background classes (typically 8 hours) which introduce the language of materials science. A handout of about 20 pages which covers this part of the course is provided, since no completely satisfactory textbook has yet been published. Assessments of the students' backgrounds in science (and their archaeological experience) typically reveal that two-thirds of the registered students have no more than one university level science course, and this is often a course having little relevance to archaeometry. With this in mind, these background classes consist of a detailed look at the structures of materials at various levels of magnification. Initially the structure of atoms is considered, with an emphasis on atomic energy levels in order to provide a basis for later coverage of elemental analysis using various forms of atomic spectroscopy (such as emission, absorption, x-ray fluorescence) and neutron activation analysis. The first mention is made here of the special problems which arise in dealing with archaeological materials, such as restrictions on the amounts and locations of samples. The language with which elemental composition is specified, including units, is also covered as are the concepts of purity and alloys. This is followed by an explanation of isotopes, both stable and unstable and including the concepts of half-life, isotopic fractionation and the units used. These background lectures then continue with discussions of materials structures at the molecular/ unit cell/ compound level, introducing the ideas of bonding and the molecular analytical techniques such as chromatography and IR spectroscopy. Also introduced at this point are the concepts of amorphous and crystalline materials along with brief considerations of crystal structures and their determination using x-ray diffraction. This leads naturally into discussions of materials at the microscopic (microstructural) level, beginning with the microstructures of pure polycrystalline materials and leading through into complex multi-phase materials such as ceramics. The concept of microanalysis can then be introduced without the technical details, which are covered later. This section of the course concludes with consideration of materials at the macroscopic level, using such techniques as visual and stereobinocular observation and x-radiography.
Archaeological examples are utilized extensively throughout this background section, but coverage of the details of the techniques is limited. Some of the discussions of specific analytical techniques later in the course are done by guest lecturers, and it has proven helpful to them and to the students to have had the basics covered in advance, and appropriately written background material provided. Along with the background, some limitations of the techniques are introduced in order to counteract a tendency observed among the students to hold an exaggerated view of the abilities of scientific analysis to provide clear solutions to archaeological problems.
The fact that the techniques are meant to be applied to specific archaeological problems is re-emphasized at this point by spending 5 or 6 hours in detailed consideration of actual archaeometric investigations from the literature and the primary instructor's personal experience. In each case the archaeological question is first considered followed by the description of the archaeometric strategies employed and the archaeological implications of the results. Included here typically are a provenance problem, an authentication problem, and the determination of an industrial process operative at a site. These being real case studies, the limitations of the results can be addressed. Furthermore this provides an opportunity to illustrate the point that eliminating some possibilities can be as important as determining which of the possibilities is correct, or alternatively that determining what something is not can be as important as determining what it is. Along the way advantage is taken of these case studies to explore the technical details of some analytical procedures, such as scanning electron microscopy with electron probe microanalysis.
As mentioned above, it is critically important in this type of course that students see archaeometry through the eyes of an archaeologist who has been able to benefit from archaeometry. For this reason several archaeologists and anthropologists are here brought in as guest lecturers, each of whom deals with his or her particular questions and problems. For example one anthropologist has brought to the class the particular problems faced in understanding an unexpected social structure in an Inuit culture and its relation to possible European intrusion with European manufactured goods playing an important role. In this case archaeometry is necessary to distinguish the European goods, such as smelted copper, from objects produced from local raw materials, such as the naturally-occurring native copper which is available locally. After several weeks of background science, the students respond favourably to hearing the problems stated directly by an archaeologist or an anthropologist, in the language of those disciplines, while seeing how the analytical techniques about which they are learning are directly applied.
The balance of the course is a mix of considerations of specific archaeometric techniques presented by physical scientists and archaeological applications presented by archaeologists. Here the co-operation of the local academic community is necessary and the detailed presentations vary over time as people are willing or unwilling to contribute, for example as they are present on campus or away on leave. Typically available from local contributors are presentations on neutron activation analysis (presented by an analyst and an archaeologist), on spectroscopic techniques for elemental analysis (by an archaeometrist), on radiocarbon dating (by an analyst from a radiocarbon laboratory), on a range of other dating techniques (by a geoarchaeologist and by a paleoenvironmentalist), on stable isotope analysis and its use in archaeology, especially paleodietary determination (by a physical anthropologist), on lithic use-wear analysis (by an archaeologist), on the utility of archaeometry in understanding hunter-gatherer procurement strategy (by an archaeologist), with additional contributions on sampling and on statistical treatment of data. Several sessions on prospection are also provided, typically involving an archaeologist, a geophysicist and a remote sensing expert. It would also be possible here to include contributions from museum conservators and this may be done in future years. In all cases it is deemed important to deal with each technique's strengths, weaknesses, detection limits, sampling requirements and sample preparation. Factors such as the ability of many elemental analysis techniques to analyse only a surface layer on the sample must be discussed. Guest lecturers in the course include academic staff from the Universities of Alberta and Calgary as well as personnel from the Archaeological Survey of Alberta, the Alberta Research Council, the Alberta Environmental Centre and the Provincial Museum of Alberta, in addition to occasional visitors to the campus from other institutions. The course is lacking in areas of archaeometry which do not have local practitioners, the most notable of which, at present, is ceramic studies.
Laboratory visits are interspersed among the lectures. Students typically spend several class periods in materials science laboratories (Department of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineering) experiencing directly both optical and scanning electron microscopy (with energy dispersive microanalysis) and x-ray diffraction. Here real archaeological samples are used to illustrate the techniques and students are able to observe images directly in the microscopes. The ability to achieve a "feel" for the microstructure and thereby come into contact with the original artisan is an invaluable experience for the students. Visits to an electron microprobe laboratory (Department of Geology), a neutron activation analysis laboratory (Faculty of Pharmacy), an analytical spectroscopy laboratory which utilizes ICP-OES, ICP-MS, IR spectroscopy, gas chromatography with ICP and IR, and atomic absorption (Department of Chemistry), a mass spectroscopy laboratory (Departments of Physics and Geology) and a remote sensing laboratory (Department of Geography) are also carried out. These visits also bring home to the student the interdepartmental and multidisciplinary nature of the field as well as developing archaeometric awareness among the workers in these laboratories.
Grades in the course are assigned mainly on the basis of performance in a major literature research paper. Topics are determined by the student in consultation with the instructor, who attempts to avoid too much duplication among the various topics chosen by the various students and to steer each student to the appropriate level and to a topic about which the student is truly enthusiastic. A selection of typical project topics is given in Table 1. After a prospectus and several progress reports a final written paper is submitted about 1 week before the end of term. During the last week of term classes are replaced by group poster sessions in which each student presents a poster on his or her research paper. These poster sessions are advertised within the Anthropology and Classics Departments and are attended by a selection of academic staff and students. They therefore serve not only as learning experiences for the students but also as advertising and public relations for the course. In addition, the graduate students registered in the course are required to give oral presentations of their research papers at this time.
In the Fall term of 1994, a new development occurred in that the lecture course was offered over a fibre optic teleconferencing system to archaeology students at the University of Calgary, which is 180 miles south of Edmonton. The system used is an interactive one, so that students at both locations can see each other and the instructor, can ask questions as the need arises and can become involved in discussions together. This has necessitated some modifications to the course, for example it is obviously difficult to arrange interactive teleconference laboratory visits, but it also means that faculty from the University of Calgary can become involved in the course. Time will be the judge of the extent of the students' learning under these conditions.
This is an individual project course taken by a small number of the students who attended the first Archaeometry course during the preceding term. Each student selects a project and carries out experimental work in a laboratory. The project chosen is often but not always a follow-up on the literature research carried out in the previous term. The student is evaluated on the basis of written and oral progress reports as well as on a written term paper and poster presentation at the end of the term. The class meets as a group every other week for the oral progress reports and for the final poster session, and each student meets with the instructor as required.
A selection of the research projects carried out by students in this course is listed in Table 2. Access to sympathetic laboratories inevitably restricts the range of projects attempted but we have to date been able to find support and access to equipment and laboratory space for all of our students. Some of the projects have not produced major contributions to our state of knowledge of the past, but all have been good learning experiences for the students, and comments by the students have been invariably positive.
In addition to the two formal courses described above, undergraduate students are encouraged to explore the use of archaeometric techniques in other courses. For example, students in a course on human paleopathology have applied SEM analysis to the study of tooth wear, and microprobe analysis to the investigation of element distributions in healed bone fractures. Students who wish to pursue a topic in depth for an independent study course or for an anthropology Honors paper also have benefitted from the facilities and expertise in archaeometry at the University of Alberta; experimental work on various organic and inorganic materials as well as literature reviews typify these projects which have involved, for example, stable isotope and trace element analyses, and stereobinocular, transmitted light and scanning electron microscopy. In their senior year research projects, Metallurgical Engineering undergraduates have made use of elemental and microstructural analysis of archaeological materials to reconstruct the original smelting and mechanical processing technologies of metallic artifacts and metal-related residues. These projects have included studies of slags from historic copper smelting and Iron Age bronze-working sites, acoustical studies of Chinese bell bronzes, and the interpretation of fabrication processes in complex artifacts. In addition, student projects have involved the evaluation of different analytical techniques as applied to archaeometry. The awareness of archaeometry and its positive reception by undergraduate students in both Arts and Engineering is one of the gratifying aspects of the program.
Graduate studies in archaeometry at the University of Alberta usually involve the application of archaeometric techniques to research problems in archaeology or physical anthropology. In addition to the graduate students from the Department of Anthropology and the Department of History and Classics who take one or both of the formal archaeometry courses, a number will undertake thesis research that incorporates archaeometry; the formal archaeometry courses are recommended but are not considered prerequisites for thesis research.
M.A. and Ph.D. degrees are offered and both degrees require written theses based on original research. This provides an opportunity for many students to incorporate archaeometric techniques in their work and to peruse literature that otherwise might be considered peripheral to their discipline. While most of our graduate theses involving archaeometry are not concerned with the development or improvement of technical methods per se, they do require that the student actively participate in sample preparation and/or data acquisition, working closely with the technologists who operate and maintain the equipment. This hands-on involvement is crucial if the students are to properly interpret their data and to understand the limitations of the techniques employed. Table 3 lists some topics and techniques that have formed the basis of recent graduate theses.
One of the problems encountered at the graduate level has been the inadequate science background of many students, most of whom have come through a social science or humanities program and have completed only enough science courses to fulfill undergraduate degree requirements. Remedial study often is required and can be accomplished either through formal registration in appropriate undergraduate courses in the science faculty, or through directed readings supervised by the student's thesis advisory committee. For thesis research in physical anthropology, such as bone chemistry studies of paleodiet, supplemental study in organic chemistry and physiology may be assigned. Timetabling conflicts and students' lack of prerequisites for relevant courses has meant that most students make up the necessary background independently. While this has not posed a problem for the completion of the research, it has had, on occasion, influenced the student's ability to handle questions and critiques of his or her work.
The undergraduate archaeometry courses at the University of Alberta have unquestionably been successful at several levels. Student response has been very positive, and enrollments have steadily increased so that the 1994-95 courses are oversubscribed with students turned away. The existence of the courses has led to closer collaboration among the archaeologists and physical scientists involved, including interdepartmental co-operation within the University and collaborative projects involving the University with the Provincial agencies (Provincial Museum, Archaeological Survey of Alberta, Alberta Research Council). The interdisciplinary co-operation is important in applications for financial support from the University and granting agencies. The opportunity to carry out hands-on project research has stimulated some undergraduates to pursue graduate studies. At the graduate level, the options presented by our archaeometry program expand the range of thesis topics and have led to innovative and useful research. At both the undergraduate and graduate levels, the number of students exposed to the research opportunities afforded by archaeometry is increasing every year, as is the number who receive hands-on training in one or more methods of analysis. In the long term, this can be a distinct benefit to the discipline. Participation in these courses has been a highly positive experience for all concerned.
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